Subtropical winegrowing: viticulture & winemaking in India

Most reference texts will state that the subtropical climate is unsuitable for winegrowing. Yet, there is an ever-increasing area dedicated to grapevines in South-East Asia and wine production in India is on the rise as the number of consumers increases. The fact remains, though, that climate and terrain entail a series of peculiar conditions, for which the grape-grower and winemaker need to make adjustments. This chapter discusses the most important issues in the vineyard, the cellar and the logistics involved, highlighting the issues that make India different. Though written with a certain degree of technical detail, the aim remains to make wine accessible to the regular wine drinker as well as the traveller, and I seek the patience of wine professionals.


THE VINEYARD

The most obvious difference between India and more established and well-known viticultural regions is the climate. In its subtropical winegrowing regions there are two major seasons: the wet summer months with the south-westerly monsoon bringing the overwhelming bulk of the annual precipitation, accompanied by high temperatures often in excess of 30˚C and, in some areas, rising close to 50˚C; and the cooler dry winter months of December through to the end of February. In the transitional phases the heat builds up until July, while a north-easterly monsoon wind brings gentler and less frequent rain as November approaches.

Day labourers on a lunch break. Elite Vintage Winery, near Bijapur, Karnataka

There are two serious implications to this weather pattern. One is the lack of dormancy for the vines, which restart their growing cycle as soon as they have been pruned after harvest, unlike, for example, in Bordeaux in the northern hemisphere and Barossa Valley in the southern, where there is only one growing season and harvest a year. In India there are at least two crops a year, while in the southern areas, such as Tamil Nadu, there are three harvests per annum. Almost all the wineries will use only the crop harvested at the end of the winter growing cycle and allow all fruit as well as canes grown during the summer to drop to the ground. The exceptions are Bangalore Blue and Purple, which are grown, harvested and processed all year round to enable the continuous supply of cheap sub-entry-level wines, and decrease the need for storage and chances of the wine going off. The other implication is the reverse cycle of temperatures during the winter growing period. At the time of bud burst and flowering the temperatures are higher, and as berry-set approaches the heat decreases and again starts to pick up towards véraison and harvest time. There is therefore a need to delicately balance sugar and phenolic ripeness with the exponentially increasing heat.


Left: Jamnalal Patidar, founder of Ambi Vineyards. Titari village, near Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh

Right: Female day labourers cover their heads out of ‘respect’ for the men and the village elder. Ambi Vineyards, Titari village, near Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh


Varieties & rootstocks

The regional introdoctions and producers’ profiles discuss the choice of varieties and rootstocks in detail. In an overview of India, we observe that the use of rootstocks is increasingly becoming the standard. There is no phylloxera present in the country, but nematodes represent a danger, and the soils are often hugely infertile and highly alkaline. Producers who have some of their vines on their own roots are implementing a gradual re-plantation programme. Sula Vineyards, for example, use fruit grown on vines without rootstock only for their high-end products. Nitin Shinde of Deccan Plateau Vineyards in Pune observes that having vines on their own roots renders them vulnerable and, except for Shiraz, which has a lot of green, vegetative growth but produces little fruit, all other varieties seem to be doing well. Well, but with decreased yields, as Kailash Gurnani of York Winery in Nashik comments, who has Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc to uproot due to low productivity. The same observation has been made by Ajoy Shaw of Sula Vineyards and Yatin Patil of Reveilo Winery.

New plantations are mostly grafted on Dog Ridge rootstock, which is a natural hybrid of V candicans and V rupestris. It induces very high vigour in grafted-on scions if on deep and fertile soil, but it is particularly suited to infertile and coarse-textured soils, which are prevalent across the Indian wine regions. It has moderate phylloxera resistance, and though Dog Ridge is difficult to propagate and graft, it boasts a strong resistance to root-knot nematodes. Ajoy Shaw adds that Dog Ridge is also suitable because of its high osmotic tolerance, which works favourably during both the wet monsoon and the dry summer months when plants are exposed to sudden changes of solutes that cause rapid movement of water across the cell membrane. The rootstocks are normally planted and established in the vineyard before scions are grafted on.

Left: Rootstock nursery. Elite Vintage Winery, Mudhol, Karnataka.
Middle: Dog Ridge rootstock being planted at Vallonné Vineyards. Nashik, Maharashtra.
Right: Poly tunnel for imported rootstocks and scions at Charosa Winery, Nashik, Maharashtra.

With the influx of international consultants, there is more experimentation with rootstocks. Reveilo Winery imported P1103 from Italy, while Fratelli Wines in the Akluj sub-region of Pune used rootstocks such as SO4, Gravesac, 5BB and M0R to see which soil and grape variety combination worked best. Similarly, Sula Vineyards experiment with SO4 as well as with R-110 and 3309. All rootstock and vines imported to India have to be quarantined for six months in poly tunnels before use.


Soils

The Western Ghats are of volcanic origin and offer a limited variety of soils to the wine regions lining its eastern border. In general, most quality producers have planted their vineyards on poor and infertile soils. Therefore, the use of cover crops is widespread to provide organic matter as well as protection against erosion. Nutrients may be introduced with organic manure, such as a mix of plant material, cow dung and urine at Fratelli Wines, or with artificial fertilisers depending on the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content of the soil.

Left: Cover crop. Alpine Wineries, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka.
Middle: Cover crop between rows of Syrah. SDU Winery, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka.
Right: Bush-trained Syrah. Fratelli Wines, Pune, Maharashtra.


Trellising, training & canopy

Most vines in India are trellised, except in some experimental plantations of bush-trained Syrah by Fratelli Wines in Akluj and bush-trained Grenache and Syrah by Sula Vineyards in Nashik. India started its grape affair with table varieties, and so the use of the pandal-style trellis, or pergola as it is known in Europe, was common, but it is now in rapid decline. Though it helps to keep the canopy aerated and the bunches dry, thus reducing disease pressure, it does not limit yield or facilitate canopy management.


Pandal (pergola) trellis and training. Cumbum Valley Winery, Theni, Tamil Nadu


The Y-trellis is now widely spread across the hot tropical regions and sub-regions, because it opens up the canopy to allow for even ripening and deeper colour with the increased exposure to the sun. At the same time, due to the shape of the trellis, the hanging bunches may be covered by leaves, which protects them from sunburn before the harvest is due. It also provides easier access for spraying.

From left to right:
Y-trellis. Heritage Grape Winery, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka (1 and 2)
Y-trellis with a double vine per stake. Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard, near Mudhol, Karnataka (3 and 4).


The use of the cordon trellis, with a double or single Guyot and vertical shoot positioning (VSP), is spreading. Vintners aim to optimise sun exposure to achieve ideal ripeness, critical when temperatures rise towards the harvest. The height may vary, but good aeration and exposure to the sun often require medium to high cordons.

Left: VSP-trained Cabernet Sauvignon. Grover Zampa, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka.
Right: VSP-trained Syrah. SDU Winery, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka.


There is wide variation in the practice of cane- or spur-pruning, with the latter possibly more common, based on observation. It is said to help prevent excessive cropping and maintains better air circulation.


Pruning

The most remarkable peculiarity of the Indian vineyard is its practice of double pruning, necessitated by the lack of dormancy. The months of April and May, after the harvest and before the monsoon, is the time for back or foundation pruning. Eight shoots per arm and one bud per shoot is the standard, which then produces 15 to 20 leaves by September. During the pre-growing-season pruning in September, these are cut back to four or five buds per shoot, paving the way for the cycle that will result in grapes used for wine production. The removal of vegetative growth in early autumn also helps in eradicating any pests or disease that may have settled on the canopy during the summer months.

 

The choice of date for the autumn pruning is critical as it determines the date of the harvest. Thus, it is the tool of the winemaker to influence whether to harvest earlier in, for example, late December, or later in February when daytime temperatures creep up significantly and sugar can increase faster than phenolic ripeness. Of course, bringing the autumn pruning forward means there is the increased likelihood of rain, which increases mildew pressure. At KRSMA Estates the harvest dates have been moved forward to late December for Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc, mid-January for Sangiovese, and between mid- and late-January for Cabernet by starting the autumn pruning as early as mid- or late August. The team at Pernod Ricard’s Nine Hills works closely with growers and has been experimenting with pushing the autumn pruning back. The goal is to have lower mildew pressure, but with the end of the growing season thus pushed back, the fruit’s exposure to increasingly stronger sun is greater. To counter this, the Y-trellis is used and abundant foliage of 14 leaves per shoot overhangs the bunch to protect it from sunburn.

Left: Budding spur-pruned Syrah. SDU Winery, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka.
Right: Spur-pruned vines. Deccan Plateau Vineyards, Pune, Maharashtra.


Irrigation

The annual rainfall varies between 450 and 3,500 millietres across the different wine regions, with all precipitation concentrated during the monsoon months, as it is in all India. Irrigation is, therefore, essential for the production of good-quality grapes. By far the most common irrigation method is drip irrigation, although in Tamil Nadu, I have also witnessed flood irrigation.

Flood irrigation. Cumbum Valley Winery, Theni, Tamil Nadu


Yields

This is the most severe issue in terms of quality-wine production in India. Numerous wineries rely on growers to supply them with grapes, and the farmers’ mentality is to produce in abundance, as quantity translates into greater earnings. Low crop yields or a poor harvest equals little money, in their way of thinking. Wineries are pushing for a change in this attitude, and have invested heavily in consulting with growers, building relationships with them and providing them with incentives to focus on quality instead. The wineries are employing means such as paying by the acre rather than by weight and guaranteeing a higher price for better quality.

 

However, despite such assurances, some farmers still believe that if a plot is able to produce, for example, ten tons of grapes and they will be paid the full amount even if they deliver only four tons, they should allow the extra six tons to grow and quietly sell these to other buyers, thereby augmenting their income. Throughout my vineyard visits I have understood this to be one of the most difficult challenges for wineries. Hence producers with their own vineyards are in a fortunate position, but with increasing land prices, the system of contract growing seems to be more and more the financially viable way forward for anyone wishing to build a pan-India brand that requires larger supplies of grape.

 

Ideal yield is a debateable concept because it depends on a number of factors, such as terroir, rootstocks, varieties and, not least, the final product the winemaker wants to achieve. For example, a classed growth bordeaux will have been made from low-yielding vines, the higher cost of which is built into the price; whereas a generic bordeaux is likely to be made from high-yielding vines that allow for more economical production though at the expense of quality. In India, quality producers seem to aim for yields between four and six tons per acre for their mid-market and premium wines, which is fairly close to wines of similar quality from other areas. In Bordeaux, for example, not more than 4–4.5 tons is the norm, while it is five tons in the Napa Valley.

 

In Nashik, Mercury Wines, producing mostly mid-market wines, works with yields restricted to three tons per acre for Cabernet and five tons per acre for Shiraz. Charosa, another Nashik-based winery, makes mid-market and premium wines from an average yield of about four tons per acre. SDU Winery in Karnataka, one of the two top producers in India, works with hugely restricted yields: 2.5 tons per acre for the Deva range, its mid-market label, and 1.5 tons for the Reserva labels, consistent with their boutique producer status. Other high quality producers, such as Chandon, aim to achieve between five and six tons per acre for Chenin Blanc, which is used as the base wine for the final sparkling wine. It was fascinating to hear of Chandon developing practices that allow Pinot Noir to crop between three and four tons per acre. This may seem like a tiny quantity, but most producers have uprooted their Pinot as it can be commercially suicidal.

 

Chardonnay is another notoriously low yielding if not impossible variety in India. Reveilo Winery in Nashik manages to achieve between one and two tons, but the resultant wine is truly good. In the Hampi Hills, KRSMA Estates confesses to a yield of only one ton per three acres (!), so its Chardonnay is definitely a labour of love.

 

On the opposite end of the scale, there are some very high yields in Tamil Nadu. Cumbum Valley Winery works with eight tons per acre. The grapes are used for the production of sub-entry-level wines only, unpalatable to any regular drinker of quality wines. So, it was interesting to hear at the Heritage Grape Winery that it aims to crop Shiraz at 15 to 20 tons per acre for the purpose of a dry red wine at a hugely affordable price. It is an experiment worth tracking to see how the wine tastes. If successful, it may prove to be an affordable alternative to move consumers up the product pyramid.


Pests & diseases

As the growing season is dry, a major challenge faced by vineyards is mildew, especially in the period after the south-westerly monsoon. The first 45 days after the pre-growing-season pruning towards the end of September represent the highest risk for downy mildew. The removal of the summer season’s spurs from the vineyards helps prevent re-infection and growers adhere to a strict spraying regime. Some use conventional chemical treatments, others try a mix of neem oil and nettle tea. In Karnataka, Grover Zampa’s viticulturist observes that the highest mildew pressure is in September and October at the end of the north-easterly monsoon, which, comparatively speaking, is heavier in this region than the south-westerly prevalent from early July through to September.

 

In Tamil Nadu, a major problem is an unidentified bacterial infection, which forms a white coating on the leaf during the winter period. Connected as it seems to be to the relatively even distribution of rain through the year, it is an issue specific only to this area.

 

Grover Zampa in Karnataka lists flea beetle, mealybugs, birds and wild boar as frequent pests. Birds are an issue in several vineyards: they eat the grapes at Bangalore Soma Vineyards and at Fratelli Wines in southern Maharashtra too. Netting and noise deterrents are employed, as birds can steal as much as 20 per cent of the crop.

 

Some producers mention that they have had to pull up vines due to a leaf-roll virus infection. In other vineyards stem borers inflict damage on the woody parts of the vines and leaves, and garden weavers on green shoots. I encountered termites as an issue only in one vineyard, where the most effective protection was the destruction of their castle, while cover crops made it difficult for the pests to reach young rootstocks, to which they are very partial.

Termites in the vineyard, Alpine Wineries. Bangalore and the South, Karnataka


Stem borers damage canes through tiny holes. Alpine Wineries, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka

Garden weavers eat at the canopy. Alpine Wineries, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka

THE CELLAR

Setting up and operating a winery in India is a huge undertaking, because most of the machinery has to be imported at great expense. Consequently, several producers have tanks, gyropalettes and other equipment manufactured locally. Imported or locally produced, both can serve their purpose equally, depending on the proprietor and the management. However, the single piece of kit that wineries cannot operate without in India is the generator. Though familiar to Indian readers, foreigners may find it strange that power outages still exist in India and that their duration could be a minute or even a few hours. Thus, wineries cannot afford to work without a backup power supply if they wish to guarantee the quality of their product.

Power generator near Mudhol. Elite Vintage Winery, Bijapur and northern Karnataka


It is wonderful to see that green credentials are catching on in India and its wineries. Several wineries harvest and store water for irrigation, clean and re-cycle water, harvest the sun or use sunlight instead of electric light during the day.

Left: Solar panels. Sula Vineyards (Indian Ambience), Basavkalyan, Bijapur and northern Karnataka.
Middle & right: Reflective mirror tunnels in use in place of electric light during the day. Sula Vineyards, Nashik, Maharashtra.


Harvest: timing & picking

Wineries working with Bangalore Blue and Bangalore Purple varieties crush all year round to ensure the continuous supply of their sub-entry-level wines.

German intern Linda Böbel with a bunch of Bangalore Blue. Heritage Grape Winery, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka

Other producers make wine in the winter and spring period, starting in late December at the earliest and normally finishing no later than the middle or end of March. The time of picking is greatly influenced by the timing of the pre-growing-season pruning (details under the heading of ‘Pruning’ in this chapter). The quality of the grapes is paramount, and entails picking in the early morning until usually not later than 11 a.m., as the heat of the midday sun is unforgiving. Wineries who buy grapes from growers often pay an extra rupee or two per kilogram for fruit delivered before midday. The cleanliness of crates is made a prerequisite, with dirty bins facing the producer’s refusal.

From left to right:
Picture 1 - Simple and clean processing unit near Mudhol. Elite Vintage Winery, Bijapur and northern Karnataka.
Picture 2 - A simple building but fully equipped with modern winemaking machinery in Shrirampur. Oakwood Winery, southern Maharashtra
.
Picture 3 - Ultra-modern winery. SDU Winery,  Bangalore and the South, Karnataka.
Picture 4 - 
Fully automated and modern winery in Pune. Four Seasons Winery, Maharashtra.



Skin contact & fermentation

High and gradually increasing temperatures during harvest pose a major challenge because they make grapes prone to oxidation and increase the danger of microbiological spoilage at any time during the winemaking process. Protecting the grapes from oxygen and managing their temperature are the key controlling mechanisms for the winemaker. Blanketing harvested grapes with nitrogen and adding sulphur to the must or finished wine at a later stage help prevent oxidation. Lower temperatures also slow down oxidation and help keep microbiological activity under control.

 

However, there are important winemaking techniques that, in order to achieve other goals, invert both principles of excluding oxygen and strictly keeping temperatures low. Their aims are, for example, better extraction of aroma precursors or colour from the skin, and shaping the quality of tannins gained from the stalks and/or skins in the final wine.These techniques used to be considered counterintuitive in subtropical climates, but today, with air-conditioned facilities and temperature-controlled winemaking vessels, more and more Indian wineries experiment with various skin-contact and extraction methods in order to achieve better complexity or textural elegance.

 

Pre-fermentation skin contact for white grapes helps build more generous body and adds a layer of textural complexity. This is used by Deccan Plateau Vineyards for their Sauvignon Blanc, which is put through a few hours of skin contact before pressing. In the case of red wines, a pre-fermentation cold soak facilitates gentler extraction. KRSMA Estates in the Hampi Hills does pre-fermentation maceration on its Cabernet Sauvignon for up to three days, but Deccan Plateau Vineyards does it for two. KRSMA Estates goes a step further by experimenting with the use of open-top fermenters, which can be a source of spoilage and need extremely careful management. Of course, these techniques do not substitute for subsequent tannin management strategies, such as punch-downs, pump-overs or rack-and-returns, which are standard practices across all red-wine producing wineries in India. In the production of rosé wines, Deccan Plateau Vineyards uses staged bleeding-off, which allows the wine to gather more muscle power as far as flavour and colour are concerned.

 

The approach to malolactic fermentation in India shows the same variety as in any other wine region of the world. As a general rule of thumb, reds go through malolactic but it is variable for whites. Vallonné Vineyards in Nashik puts their red wines through malolactic fermentation, but spontaneously, as this is considered faster and better than inoculation, which has already been tried and dismissed before. KRSMA Estates sometimes puts their white wines through malolactic fermentation but it is vintage dependent. It is worth noting, however, that in India acids do not necessarily need to be tamed, in fact, the opposite is often the case.

Open-top fermenter in the Hampi Hills. KRSMA Estates, Bijapur and northern Karnataka.

Maturation

It is during maturation that a wine gains its final shape and form. Oak ageing is possibly the most obvious and important influence on red wines and learning its appropriate use takes time in every emerging wine country. India is no exception. Producers have begun to appreciate that allowing the primacy of fruit is often more attractive than flavours derived from the use of cheap chips or staves. Such practice, though still present in some wineries, is gradually being discarded. The wineries that opt for oak barrels tend to use barrique size. American oak is dominant because its flavours better suit riper styles and the Indian consumer’s palate. It is refreshing to see that over-oaked wines are on the decline even if there are some producers who prefer to craft big and bold red wines.

Ageing sparkling wines on fine lees once secondary fermentation in the bottle is over greatly influences the shape taken by the house style, and no mandatory legal framework encourages greater experimentation and variety in philosophy in India. For example, Fratelli Wines adheres to a minimum of seven months before disgorgement, while York Winery keeps its wine on lees for 13 months and Domain Chandon for 18 months. There is no right or wrong way, just a diversity of styles.


Left: The barrel room. Sula Vineyards, Nashik, Maharashtra.
Right: Chenin Blanc bottles on tirage, aged on lees. Grover Zampa, Nashik, Maharashtra.


Logistics & distribution

Producing wines is only a part of the process. Finished wines need to be bottled and then shipped to the consumer. The aim of the winemaker is to protect his product throughout the entire process, from vineyard to glass. Bottling is critical; the wine cannot improve, and there are multiple critical hazards in this one process that can ruin a wine. Highly sophisticated and expensive technology can simplify bottling if used professionally and reliably. However, smaller wineries can also package to high standards and hygienically – it depends largely on the management. How producers handle this aspect of the process varies greatly in India. The images speak for themselves.


Old-fashioned and dilapidated filling, capping and label-printing machines. Cumbum Valley Winery, Theni, Tamil Nadu


Unhygienic, semi-automated bottle-washing, filling and capping machines. Rico Winery, Bijapur, Karnataka

.


Old-fashioned, but clean and well-maintained, semi-automated bottle-washing, filling and capping machines. Nisarga Winery, Bijapur, Karnataka

Left: Sterile filtration to provide water used during bottling, SDU Winery, Bangalore and the South, Karnatka.
Middle: Highly automated and hygienic label-printing machines. Four Seasons Wines, Pune, Maharashtra.

Right: Stringent quality control: checking every bottle for foreign bodies. Grover Zampa, Bangalore and the South, Karnataka.


Distribution becomes a mightily complicated business in India due to the lack of unified regulations. Each state has its own laws and rules. Kerala, for example, decided in 2014 to aim at total prohibition. Some states have a completely free market, in others there is a state monopoly for the distribution of alcoholic products. Taxes and duties are punitively high, label registration requirements complex and expensive, and the bureaucracy administering the whole business is cumbersome and with no understanding of why wine is different from beers or spirits.


Innovative labels. Indus Wines, Nashik, Maharashtra

Wineries have to ensure that every bottle complies with the labelling regulations of the destination market and, therefore, it is often visible that the given bottle is for sale only in the certain states of India. Some states require wine bottles to carry specific warnings as, for example, in Tamil Nadu, where the mandatory advice that the contents of the bottle are ‘injurious to health’ is clear evidence that winemakers are challenged in every possible way.

 

Storage conditions, temperature and light, in particular, can be detrimental to wine quality. Quality-conscious wineries implement quality-assurance measures, such as monitoring the trucks and warehouses of distributors, but too often excessive heat or long exposure to bright sunlight damages the wine by the time it gets into the glass of the consumer. The wine business is indeed an intricate art and science in India.


Created with